Fate, weathering, behaviour and toxicity of priority Hazardous and Noxious Substances

Advanced Search

On this database it is collected information on fate, weathering, behaviour and toxicity of priority Hazardous and Noxious Substances (HNS) from different sources. This systematized information is a useful tool to predict the behaviour of priority HNS in accidental spills, backing spill preparedness and effective decision-making process. This database also provides an important support to environmental and human health risk assessment, and monitoring actions.

Read Documents

MARINER is co-financed by the European Union in the framework of the Union Civil Protection Mechanism. DG-ECHO

CIIMAR website Arcopol Platform website Contact us

Name: Benzene

CAS Number: 71-43-2

UN Number: 1114

Formulae: C6H6

Name: Benzene

CAS Number: 71-43-2

UN Number: 1114

Formulae: C6H6

Physicochemical properties/Characteristics

E

Physical behaviour (GESAMP, 2016)

1, 2

78.114

Molecular Weight
(g/mol)

2

0.88

Density
(kg/L)

2

12.64

Vapour pressure
(KPa; 25ºC)

2

1790

Water solubility
(mg/L; 25ºC)

2

0.60

Dynamic viscosity
(mPa.s; 25ºC)

2, 3

5.5

Melting point (ºC)

2

80.1

Boiling point (ºC)

2

23.3

Volatilization half-life (days)

4
  1. G: gas; D: dissolver; E: evaporator; F: floater; S: sinker; GD: gas/dissolver; DE: dissolver/evaporator; FD: floater/dissolver; FE: floater/evaporator; FED: floater/evaporator/dissolver; Fp: persistent floater; SD: sinker/dissolver
  2. Values collected from the literature and public databases e.g. PubChem
  3. “-“ corresponds to values not found
  4. Values estimated with models of the EPI suiteTM

Fugacity/Persistence

15.10

Air

4, 5

84.10

Water

4, 5

0.04

Soil

4, 5

0.76

Sediment

4, 5

11.9

Persistence (days)

4
  1. Values estimated with models of the EPI suiteTM
  2. In the present study, only emissions in water were considered

Physicochemical degradation/Biodegradation

65.8

Atmosferic Oxidation (hours)

4

R

Biodegradation rate (GESAMP, 2016)

6, 7

0.73

Aerobic biodegradation probability

4

3.39 days-weeks

Primary aerobic biodegradation half-life

4, 8

2.44 weeks-months

Ultimate aerobic biodegradation half-life

4, 8

4.5

Hydrocarbon Biodegradation half-life (days)

3, 4

0.00

Anaerobic Biodegradation probability

4
  1. “-“ corresponds to values not found
  2. Values estimated with models of the EPI suiteTM
  3. Results obtained from the literature
  4. GESAMP criteria consider substances to be “readily biodegradable” (R) if, in 28-day biodegradation studies, the following levels of degradation are achieved: in tests based upon dissolved organic carbon (DOC) die-away: ≥ 70%; or in tests based upon oxygen depletion or carbon dioxide generation: ≥ 60% of the theoretical maxima; or where only chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) data are available, the ratio of BOD5/COD ≥ 0.5; or where other convincing scientific evidence is available to demonstrate that the substance can be degraded (biotically and/or abiotically) in the aquatic environment to a level of > 70% within a 28-day period. Otherwise they are “not readily biodegradable” (NR) (GESAMP, 2014).
  5. See Table 1 in the supplementary material for more information on the rating reported by Boethling et al. (1994)

Bioaccumulation/Biotransformation

1.54

Biotransformation half-life (days)

2

2.13

Partition coefficient (log Kow)

2

14.8

Bioconcentration factor (BFC)

4

1

Bioaccumulation rate (GESAMP, 2016)

9

1.92

Adsorption coefficient (log koc)

2
  1. Values collected from the literature and public databases e.g. PubChem
  2. Values estimated with models of the EPI suiteTM
  3. See Table 2 in the supplementary material for more information on Bioaccumulation rate classification (GESAMP, 2014)

Aquatic Toxicity

2

Acute toxicity (GESAMP, 2016)

10

-

Chronic toxicity (GESAMP, 2016)

3, 10
  1. “-“ corresponds to values not found
  2. See Table 3 in the supplementary material for more information on Aquatic Toxicity classification (GESAMP, 2014)

Acute Mammals/Human health effects

1

Oral Toxicity (GESAMP, 2016)

11

0

Dermal toxicity (GESAMP, 2016)

11

0

Inhalation toxicity (GESAMP, 2016)

11

2

Skin irritation & corrosion (GESAMP, 2016)

11

2

Eye irritation & corrosion (GESAMP, 2016)

11

0

Toxicity

12

0

Severity

12
  1. See Table 4 in the supplementary material for more information on Human health (Toxic effects to mammals) classification (GESAMP, 2014)
  2. For more information on Toxicity and Severity scores consult Harold et al. (2014)

Chronic Human/Mammals health effects

4

Carcinogenicity (IARC)

3, 13

Yes

Mutagenicity (GESAMP, 2016)

11

No

Reprotoxicity (GESAMP, 2016)

11

No

Sensitizing to skin (GESAMP, 2016)

11

No

Aspiration hazard (GESAMP, 2016)

11

Yes

Target Organ Toxicity (GESAMP, 2016)

11

No

Sensitizing to respiratory system (GESAMP, 2016)

11

No

Neurotoxicity (GESAMP, 2016)

11

No

Immunotoxicity (GESAMP, 2016)

11
  1. “-“ corresponds to values not found
  2. See Table 4 in the supplementary material for more information on Human health (Toxic effects to mammals) classification (GESAMP, 2014)
  3. See Table 5 in the supplementary material for more information on IARC classification

Toxicity tests results
PNECseawater: 8 µg/L
PNECwater, intermittent: 49 µg/L

Algae

EC50

Parameter

1

525

Concentration
(mg/L)

Green algae - Chlorella vulgaris

Species

Cell multiplication inhibition test

Endpoint

20 °C; 1d-incubation

Observations

1

EC50

Parameter

2

525

Concentration
(mg/L)

Green algae - Chlorella vulgaris

Species

Growth

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 20 °C; 24h-exposure

Observations

2

EC50

Parameter

3

28

Concentration
(mg/L)

Green algae - Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata

Species

Growth

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 72h-exposure

Observations

3

EC50

Parameter

4

41

Concentration
(mg/L)

Green algae - Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata

Species

Growth

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 8d-exposure; Exponential growth phase (log)

Observations

4

EC10

Parameter

3

8.3

Concentration
(mg/L)

Green algae - Selenastrum capricornutum

Species

Growth inhibition

Endpoint

Freshwater; Closed; 72h-exposure

Observations

5
  1. Verschueren K; Handbook of Environmental Data on Organic Chemicals. Volumes 1-2. 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY (2001)
  2. Kauss PB, Hutchinson TC; Environ Pollut 9 (3): 157-174 (1975) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed October 26, 2015)
  3. OECD; Determination of the effect of benzene on the growth of the fresh water green algae Selenastrum capricornutum. (OECD Guideline No. 201 and EU C.3). TNO Report V2360/01. July 2000
  4. Herman DC et al; Aquat Toxicol 18 (2): 87-100 (1990) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed October 27, 2015)

Invertebrates

EC50

Parameter

1

18

Concentration
(mg/L)

Water flea - Daphnia magna

Species

Intoxication, immobilization

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 20 °C; 24h-exposure; < 24h age

Observations

6

EC50

Parameter

2

10

Concentration
(mg/L)

Water flea - Daphnia magna

Species

Intoxication, immobilization

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 20 °C; 24h and 48h-exposure; Juvenile(s)

Observations

7

EC50

Parameter

3

10.15

Concentration
(mg/L)

Water flea - Ceriodaphnia dubia

Species

Intoxication, immobilization

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 48h-exposure

Observations

8

LC50

Parameter

4

1130

Concentration
(mg/L)

Water flea - Daphnia magna

Species

Intoxication, immobilization

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 20-22 °C; 24h-exposure; ≤ 24h age

Observations

9

LC50

Parameter

5

250

Concentration
(mg/L)

Water flea - Daphnia magna

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 22 °C; 24h-exposure; ≤ 24h age

Observations

10

LC50

Parameter

6

682

Concentration
(mg/L)

Water flea - Daphnia magna

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 19 °C; 48h-exposure; Mixed ages

Observations

11

LC50

Parameter

5

200

Concentration
(mg/L)

Water flea - Daphnia magna

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 22 °C; 48h-exposure; ≤ 24h age

Observations

12

LC50

Parameter

7

18.4

Concentration
(mg/L)

Water flea - Ceriodaphnia dubia

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 25 °C; 24h-exposure; < 24h age

Observations

13

LC50

Parameter

8

20

Concentration
(mg/L)

Bay shrimp - Crangon franciscorum

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Saltwater; Static; 16 ºC; 96h-exposure; Mature organism(s)

Observations

14

LC50

Parameter

9

27

Concentration
(mg/L)

Daggerblade grass shrimp - Palaemonetes pugio

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Saltwater; Static; 21 ºC; 96h-exposure

Observations

15

LC50

Parameter

10

108

Concentration
(mg/L)

Dungeness or edible Crab - Cancer magister

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Saltwater; Static; 13 ºC; 96h-exposure; 1 instar age (Zoe)

Observations

16

NOEC

Parameter

11

3

Concentration
(mg/L)

Water flea - Ceriodaphnia dubia

Species

Reproduction

Endpoint

Freshwater; Semi-static; 7d-exposure

Observations

17
  1. Tosato ML et al; Environ Sci Technol 25: 695-702 (1991) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed October 27, 2015)
  2. Janssen CR, Persoone G; Environ Toxicol Chem 12: 711-717 (1993) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed October 27, 2015)
  3. Rose RM et al; Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 34 (3): 248-252 (1998) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed October 28, 2015)
  4. Bringmann G, Kuhn R; TR-79-1204, Literature Research Company, Annandale, VA: 26 p. (1977) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed October 28, 2015)
  5. LeBlanc GA; Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 24 (5): 684-691 (1980) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed October 28, 2015)
  6. Eastmond DA et al; Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 13 (1): 105-111 (1984) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed October 28, 2015)
  7. Marchini S et al; Sci Total Environ Suppl: 799-808 (1993) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed February 8, 2017)
  8. Benville P E Jr, Korn S; Calif Fish Game 63 (4): 204-209 (1977) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed February 16, 2017)
  9. Tatem HE et al; Estuar Coast Mar Sci 6 (4): 365-373 (1978) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed February 8, 2017)
  10. Caldwell RS et al; In: Wolfe DA (Ed.), Fate and Effects of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Marine Ecosystems and Organisms, Pergamon Press, Oxford: 210-220 (1977) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed February 8, 2017)
  11. Niederlehner BR et al; Modelling acute and chronic toxicity to nonpolar narcotic chemicals and mixtures to Ceriodaphnia dubia. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 39: 136-146 (1998)

Fish

LC50

Parameter

1

12

Concentration
(mg/L)

Brown trout - Salmo trutta

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; 10 ºC; 1h-exposure; Organisms at different lifestages (Yearling, Fingerling)

Observations

18

LC50

Parameter

2

9.2

Concentration
(mg/L)

Rainbow trout - Oncorhynchus mykiss

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 12 °C; 24h and 96h-exposure

Observations

19

LC50

Parameter

3

5.9

Concentration
(mg/L)

Rainbow trout - Oncorhynchus mykiss

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Renewal; 12 °C; 96h-exposure

Observations

20

LC50

Parameter

4

5.3

Concentration
(mg/L)

Rainbow trout - Oncorhynchus mykiss

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Flow through; 15 °C; 96h-exposure; Juvenile(s)

Observations

21

LC50

Parameter

2

740

Concentration
(mg/L)

Bluegill - Lepomis macrochirus

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 19 °C; 24h-exposure

Observations

22

LC50

Parameter

5

20

Concentration
(mg/L)

Bluegill - Lepomis macrochirus

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 20 ºC; 24h and 48h-exposure

Observations

23

LC50

Parameter

6

22

Concentration
(mg/L)

Bluegill - Lepomis macrochirus

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Soft water; 24h and 96h-exposure

Observations

24

LC50

Parameter

2

100

Concentration
(mg/L)

Bluegill - Lepomis macrochirus

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 22 °C; 96h-exposure

Observations

25

LC50

Parameter

7

70

Concentration
(mg/L)

Japanese medaka - Oryzias latipes

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 20 °C; 24h and 48h-exposure

Observations

26

LC50

Parameter

7

54

Concentration
(mg/L)

Japanese medaka - Oryzias latipes

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 30 °C; 24h and 48h-exposure

Observations

27

LC50

Parameter

8

395

Concentration
(mg/L)

Western mosquitofish - Gambusia affinis

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 20-22 ºC; 24h and 48h-exposure; Adult(s)

Observations

28

LC50

Parameter

6

46

Concentration
(mg/L)

Goldfish - Carassius auratus

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Soft water; 24h-exposure

Observations

29

LC50

Parameter

6

34

Concentration
(mg/L)

Goldfish - Carassius auratus

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Soft water; 24h and 96h-exposure

Observations

30

LC50

Parameter

2

102

Concentration
(mg/L)

Channel catfish - Ictalurus punctatus

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 17 °C; 24h-exposure

Observations

31

LC50

Parameter

2

425

Concentration
(mg/L)

Channel catfish - Ictalurus punctatus

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 22 °C; 24h and 96h-exposure

Observations

32

LC50

Parameter

9

34.42

Concentration
(mg/L)

Fathead minnow - Pimephales promelas

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 25 °C; 24h-exposure

Observations

33

LC50

Parameter

9

32

Concentration
(mg/L)

Fathead minnow - Pimephales promelas

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 25 °C; 48h and 96h-exposure

Observations

34

LC50

Parameter

10

15.59

Concentration
(mg/L)

Fathead minnow - Pimephales promelas

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Flow through; 25 °C; 96h-exposure; < 24h age (Larva(e))

Observations

35

LC50

Parameter

10

24.6

Concentration
(mg/L)

Fathead minnow - Pimephales promelas

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Flow through; 25 °C; 96h-exposure; 28-33d age (Juvenile(s))

Observations

36

LC50

Parameter

10

14.01

Concentration
(mg/L)

Fathead minnow - Pimephales promelas

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Flow through; 25 ºC; 7d-exposure; < 24h age (Larva(e))

Observations

37

LC50

Parameter

6

63

Concentration
(mg/L)

Guppy - Poecilia reticulata

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

14d-exposure

Observations

38

LC50

Parameter

11

5.8

Concentration
(mg/L)

Striped bass - Morone saxatilis

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Saltwater; Static; 16 °C; 96h-exposure

Observations

39

LC50

Parameter

12

4.9

Concentration
(mg/L)

Salmonid - Oncorhynchus necra

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Saltwater; Static; 96h-exposure

Observations

40 Lowest

NOEC

Parameter

13

0.8

Concentration
(mg/L)

Fathead minnow - Pimephales promelas

Species

Growth

Endpoint

Freshwater; Flow through; FELS, 32d-exposure

Observations

41 Lowest
  1. Woodiwiss FS, Fretwell G; Water Pollut Control 73: 396-405 (1974) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed February 8, 2017)
  2. Mayer FL Jr, Ellersieck MR; Manual of Acute Toxicity: Interpretation and Data Base for 410 Chemicals and 66 Species of Freshwater Animals. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, Publication No. 160, Washington, DC: 505p (1986)
  3. Galassi S et al; Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 16 (2): 158-169 (1988) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed October 26, 2015)
  4. DeGraeve GM et al; Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 11 (4): 487-490 (1982) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed February 1, 2017)
  5. Turnbull H et al; J Ind Eng Chem 46 (2): 324-333 (1954) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed February 8, 2017)
  6. Verschueren K; Handbook of Environmental Data on Organic Chemicals. Volumes 1-2. 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY (2001)
  7. Tsuji S et al: Jpn J Toxicol Environ Health 32 (1): 46-53 (1986) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed February 8, 2017)
  8. Wallen et al; Sewage Ind Wastes 29 (6): 695-711 (1957) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed February 16, 2017)
  9. Pickering QH, Henderson C; J Water Pollut Control Fed 38 (9): 1419-1429 (1966) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed February 8, 2017)
  10. Marchini S et al; Environ Toxicol Chem 11 (2): 187-195 (1992) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed October 29, 2015)
  11. Benville PE Jr, Korn S; Calif Fish Game 63 (4): 204-209 (1977) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed February 16, 2017)
  12. Moles A et al; Sensitivity of Alaskan Freshwater and Anadromous Fishes to Prudhoe Bay Crude Oil and Benzene. Trans Am Fish Soc 108: 408-414 (1979)
  13. Russom CL, Broderius SJ; A chronic aquatic toxicity database for development of predictive toxicology models for industrial organic chemicals. US EPA, Environmental Research Laboratory-Duluth. Deliverable No. 8477. PPA: L104/G/2013 (1991)

Amphibians

LC50

Parameter

1

190

Concentration
(mg/L)

African clawed frog - Xenopus laevis

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 20 °C; 48h-exposure; 3-4weeks age

Observations

42

LC50

Parameter

2

370

Concentration
(mg/L)

Mexican axolotl - Ambystoma mexicanum

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Freshwater; Static; 20 ºC; 48h-exposure; 3-4weeks age

Observations

43
  1. De Zwart D, Slooff W; Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 38: 345-351 (1987) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed October 29, 2015)
  2. Slooff W, Baerselman R; Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 24 (3): 439-443 (1980) as cited in the ECOTOX database. Available at: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/quick_query.htm (accessed February 8, 2017)

Mammals

LC50

Parameter

1

10000

Concentration
(mg/kg)

Rat

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Acute; 7h-inhalation

Observations

44

LD50

Parameter

1

930

Concentration
(mg/kg)

Rat

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Acute; oral

Observations

45

LD50

Parameter

1

4700

Concentration
(mg/kg)

Mouse

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Acute; oral

Observations

46

LD50

Parameter

1

9400

Concentration
(mg/kg)

Rabbit

Species

Mortality

Endpoint

Acute; dermal

Observations

47

LOEC

Parameter

2

139

Concentration
(mg/kg)

Mice

Species

Chromosomal abnormalities

Endpoint

Oral; 2d-exposure

Observations

48

LOEC

Parameter

2

2050

Concentration
(mg/kg)

Mice

Species

Cytotoxicity

Endpoint

Oral; 2d-exposure

Observations

49

NOEC

Parameter

3

1000

Concentration
(ppm)

Rat

Species

Body Weight and Food consumption

Endpoint

Oral (in diet); 28d

Observations

50

LOEC

Parameter

3

100000

Concentration
(mg/L)

Rat

Species

Body Weight

Endpoint

Oral (in diet); 106d

Observations

51

NOEC

Parameter

3

10000

Concentration
(mg/L)

Rat

Species

Body Weight

Endpoint

Oral (in diet); 106d

Observations

52

LOEC

Parameter

4

300

Concentration
(ppm)

Rat, female

Species

Body weight; Delayed ossification of fetus

Endpoint

Inhalation; 6h-daily; 6-15d-gestation

Observations

53

NOEC

Parameter

4

100

Concentration
(ppm)

Rat, female

Species

Body weight; Delayed ossification of fetus

Endpoint

Inhalation; 6h-daily; 6-15d-gestation

Observations

54
  1. Sciencelab; Material Safety Data Sheet Benzene (2005): Available at: http://www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9927339 (accessed October 30, 2015)
  2. Siou G et al; Evaluation of the clastogenic action of benzene by oral administration with 2 cytogenetic techniques in mouse and Chinese hamster. Mutat Res 90 (3): 273-278 (1981)
  3. Available at: http://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/ (accessed October 26, 2015)
  4. Green JD et al; Inhaled benzene fetotoxicity in rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 46 (1): 9-18 (1978)
References

Boethling RS, Howard PH, Meylan W, Stiteler W, Beauman J, Tirado N. 1994. Group contribution method for predicting probability and rate of aerobic biodegradation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 28: 459-465.

Bonn Agreement, 1994. European Classification System, Bonn Agreement: Counter-Pollution Manual. Bonn Agreement, London (Chapter 25).

GESAMP (IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/WMO/WHO/IAEA/UN/UNEP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection), 2014. Revised GESAMP Hazard Evaluation Procedure for Chemical Substances Carried by Ships, 2nd edition. Rep. Stud. GESAMP No. 64, 126 pp.

GESAMP Composite List, 2016. ANNEX 5 – UPDATED GESAMP COMPOSITE LIST. Available at: https://edocs.imo.org/Final Documents/English/PPR 1-CIRC.3 (E).docx (Accessed: December 12, 2016).

Harold PD, Souza AS, Louchart P, Russell D, Brunt H, 2014. Development of a risk based prioritisation methodology to inform public health emergency planning and preparedness in case of accidental spill at sea of hazardous and noxious substances (HNS). Environ. Int. 72: 157-163.